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Core Content and Skills
Science Biology R
2008-2009
BOE Approved

Introduction  Content   Skills  Go over syllabus Go over lab rules   locate all emergency exits, and safety rules     Lab Skills  Content   Skills  Metric Measurement from kilograms to microns (micrometers) Graphing Constructing Scientific Experiments correctly identify independent dependent variables, controls, hypothesis, and experimental results from an experiment   Using Metric Rulers and conversions Using a graduated cylinder Creating and Drawing Conclusions from Graph construct an experiment from different scenarios circle all points on a graph     Microscope  Content   Skills  Calculating Magnification Identify the ocular lens, objective lens, diaphragm, arm, body tube, stage, stage clips, and light source from picture of a microscope Identify the functions of the ocular lens, objective lens, diaphragm, arm, body tube, stage, stage clips, and light source. Be able to draw the image of the a specimen seen through the microscope. Be able to draw the image of the a specimen seen through the microscope. Know which may to move the specimen to keep it in the field of view As magnification increases, field of view decreases   Correctly identify all microscope parts Calculating Magnification Correctly making Wet mounts and Staining Decipher different fields of view and centering slides     Life Processes  Content   Skills  organism- a living thing organic- has BOTH carbon and hydrogen inorganic- does not have both carbon and hydrogen   Water is an unique compound with the properties of cohesion and adhesion The Life processes are Synthesis, Transport, Respiration, Assimilation, Nutrition, Growth, Excretion, Regulation, and Reproduction Metabolism- the sum total of all life processes needed to sustain life Homeostasis- the maintenance of an internal stable environment by an organism (steady state) A disruption in any organism system will result in a corresponding disruption of homeostasis. Organisms possess a  control mechanisms that detect changes in the internal (or external) environment and make adjustments to correct the situation.   1.    correctly differentiate between inorganic and organic 2.    recognize that water is the most common inorganic compound in living things 3.    correctly define the following terms; nutrition, ingestion, digestion, circulation, movement, respiration, synthesis, excretion, regulation, growth, reproduction, and immunity 4.    define the term metabolism and relate it to the complete functioning of an organism 5.    define the term homeostasis and recognize if a person is in or out of homeostasis 6.    recognize that a disruption in any organism system will result in a corresponding        disruption of homeostasis 7.    recognize that organisms possess a diverse set of control mechanisms that detect        changes in the environment and make adjustments to correct        the situation such as body temperature.     Organic Chemistry  Content   Skills  pH scale is 1-14, acids 1-6, 8-14 are bases and 7 is neutral Carbohydrates: -- include sugars and starches), contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen 2:1 3 types of sugars - mono, di, and polysaccharides examples: most ending in -ose dehydration synthesis -- combining simple molecules to form a more complex one with the removal of water  hydrolysis -- the addition of water to a compound to split it into smaller subunits (also called chemical digestion) Lipids exs. fats, oils, waxes, steroids -- lipids chiefly function in energy storage, protection, and insulation -- contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but the H:O is not in a 2:1 ratio lipids Nucleic Acids - parts of DNA made of 20 different amino acids, central carbon, amino group, and carboxyl group Proteins composed of amino acid bound by peptide bonds, making polypeptide Most enzyme names end in -ase -- enzymes lower the energy needed to start a chemical rx. (activation energy) -- begin to be destroyed above 45 C. (above this temperature all proteins begin to be destroyed)   Complete Benedict's Solution Test for carbohydrates and determine if a carbohydrate is a simple or complex sugar Students will correctly perform the iodine test to test for polysaccharrides. Students will perform Buiret solution test for proteins and animo acid sequences

Cells and Cell Processes  Content   Skills  1. Define the 3 parts of the cell theory 2. Know 2 reasons why viruses do not work with the cell theory 3. Identify all the cell organelles and their functions; cell membrane, cell wall, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, lysosome, vacuole, chloroplast, mitochondria, nucleus, and gogli bodies 4. Identify 3 differences between a plant and animal cell 5. Know the 4 levels of organization (cell, tissue, organ, system) 6. Define the fluid mosaic model and know the parts to the cell membrane   1.   discuss and compare the following relative organizational levels; cell, tissue, organ,       and organ systems 2.   recognize that improvements in the light microscope and microscopic techniques       during the last four centuries have allowed the development of the cell theory. 3. State the cell theory 4.   describe the appearance and chief function(s) of the following organelles found in both plant and animal cells; 5.   relate the structure of the plasma membrane to its function 6.   discuss the role of the centriole in animal cells 7.   state the role of the cell wall and chloroplasts in plant cells. .     Diffusion  Content   Skills  Molecules are in constant motion Molecules move from high to low concentrations Active Transport moves molecules from low to high concentrations Molecules move down their concentration gradient Channel Proteins allow larger molecules to move through the membrane Active transport requires energy Selectively Permeable means the membrane only allows certain molecules to pass through.   Students will construct a semipermeable membrane and determine why certain molecules will diffuse across the membrane while other molecules will not diffuse across the membrane Students will be able to predict and see the effects of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions on elodea leaf cells.

Cell Respiration  Content   Skills  Respiration: a process that occurs continuously in all organisms It involves the transfer of the stored chemical energy in food molecules to a form readily usable by organisms exchanging different gases. Respiration: a process that occurs continuously in all organism Enzyme-controlled reactions in which the potential energy of organic molecules, such as glucose, is transferred to a more available form of energy. ATP(adenosine triphosphate) -- a more available form of energy used by the cell aerobic respiration: if molecular oxygen is used in the release of energy from 36 ATP anaerobic respiration: if molecular oxygen is not use fro only 2 ATP FERMENTATION is carried on in some cells lacking the enzymes necessary for aerobic respiration or in many other cells when oxygen is lacking Lactic Acid Fermentation (Glycolysis) - glucose is gradually broken down in a series of enzyme controlled reactions to lactic acid  (anaerobic respiration) usually in muscle fatigue Many of the enzymes involved in aerobic cellular respiration are located in the mitochondria. Aerobic is more efficient than anaerobic   1.    define the term respiration and recognize that the process involves gas        exchange between the organism and its environment 2.    explain the significance of the energy conversions involved in cellular respiration 3.    explain what ATP is and its significance 4.explain how ATP is converted to ADP and explain what the energy released may be used for 5.  explain the difference between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration 6. explain the process of alcohol fermentation and its significance 7. state the equation for lactic acid fermentation and explain how this may lead to muscle fatigue 9.    recognize that the process of aerobic cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria using many enzyme controlled steps 10.  recognize that aerobic respiration is much more efficient in the production of ATP than anaerobic respiration.     Photosynthesis  Content   Skills  Photosynthesis: process by which plants convert light energy to the chemical energy of organic molecules (glucose) The energy for life (photosynthesis) comes primarily from the Sun. Word eq'n: Carbon dioxide + water -------> glucose + oxygen The process of photosynthesis uses chlorophyll to trap solar energy which is then used to combine the inorganic molecules carbon dioxide and water into energy-rich organic compounds (e.g., glucose) and release oxygen to the environment. These chlorophyll pigments may be separated according to their various chemical charges by a technique known as chromatography. The glucose which is formed in photosynthesis may be used as an energy source, or converted into storage products or other molecules.   1.  explain the purpose of the process of photosynthesis for a plant 2.  state the overall equation for photosynthesis 3.  list several factors which improve the efficiency of the photosynthetic process 4.  explain the role of chlorophyll and chloroplasts in photosynthesis 5.  discuss the process of chromatography in reference to the separation of plant pigments 6.  state several uses for the glucose formed in photosynthesis. 7.  recognize that algae and green plants are organisms which carry on photosynthesis.

Disease and Immunity  Content   Skills  Homeostasis in an organism is constantly threatened.  Failure to respond effectively can result in disease or death. Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other parasites may infect plants and animals and interfere with normal life functions. Immune response--defensive reaction of the body to foreign substances or organisms The immune system also protects against some cancer cells which may arise in the body.  Natural Killer Cells destroy the bodies own infected cells, especially those containing viruses. They may attack cells that might form tumors. antigens--foreign substances or organisms which stimulate the body to make antibodies antibodies--specific plasma proteins which render harmless or destroy a specific antigen produced by certain white blood cells (ex. lymphocytes) An antibody has a specific shape which only allows it to attack a specific antigen. Other white blood cells mark antigens for attack by antibodies or attack and engulf the antigen.  (phagocytes) immunity--the accumulation of specific antibodies in the plasma of the blood enabling the individual to resist specific diseases Ways of acquiring immunity: 1. Active immunity--the individual either possesses or forms his or her own antibodies within his or her own body ** The antigen-antibody reaction occurs within the body in response to either contact with the disease-causing organisms or their products, or by receiving a vaccination. Vaccinations use weakened microbes or parts of microbes to stimulate the immune system to react.   (primary immune response)  This reaction stimulates the body to fight subsequent invasions by the same microbes. (secondary immune response) 2. Passive immunity--a temporary form of immunity produced by the introduction  of antibodies into an individual from another organism   "Let the others do the work"  This immunity is of short duration. allergy--an extreme body reaction to certain foreign proteins (antigen-antibody rx.) Some allergic reactions are caused by the body's immune responses to usually harmless environmental substances.    autoimmune diseases -- the immune system attacks some of the body's own cells exs. Crohn's disease, myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, lupus, fibromyalgia Antibodies formed in response to these substances may cause inflammations and/or result in the release of a chemical substance called histamine. The histamine causes the allergic response. antihistamine--stops this allergic reaction AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome) -- a viral disease which damages the immune system -- this damage leaves the body unable to cope with numerous infectious agents and cancerous cells Our increased knowledge of immunity has resulted in the ability to type blood and transplant organs. Major lymph vessels have lymph nodes which contain phagocytic white blood cells which filter bacteria and dead cells from the lymph. [Some other causes of disease include] 1.    inheritance 2.    toxic substances 3.    poor nutrition 4.    organ malfunction 5.    poor personal behaviors and choices cancer -- results from gene mutations in cells which cause uncontrolled cell division **  Exposure of cells to certain chemicals and radiation increases mutations and thus increases the chances of cancer. Biological research (such as the human genome project) generates knowledge used to design ways of diagnosing, preventing, treating, controlling, and curing diseases of plants and animals.     1.   define disease as a failure of homeostasis and list examples of this. 2.   recognize that viruses, bacteria, fungi. and other organisms may invade other plants       and animals interfering with their homeostasis. 3.   explain what is meant by the immune response. 4.   state the function of natural killer cells. 5.   define the term antigen. 6.   define the term antibody. 7.   explain how phagocytes and lymphocytes assist in the immune function. 8.   recognize that some white blood cells may mark antigens for attack by other       white blood cells or antibodies. 9.   recognize that antibodies have specific shapes which allow them to attack specific       antigens. 10. explain what is meant by immunity. 11. explain the difference between active and passive immunity and list some ways of getting       each of these. 12. explain how receiving a vaccination or recovery from a disease may produce a primary       and secondary immune response. 13. explain what an allergy is. 14. explain the difference between a histamine and an antihistamine. 15. explain what is meant by autoimmune diseases and list some examples of these. 16. discuss what AIDS is and explain how it destroys the immune system. 17. relate our knowledge of immunity to tissue transplantation and blood typing. 18. explain the role of lymph nodes in the immune process. 19. list 5 other causes of disease besides infections or parasitic attacks and list       some examples of each of these causes. 20. explain what cancer is and how it interferes with homeostasis. 21. recognize that exposure of cells to certain chemicals and radiation increases the       chance of having a mutation and getting cancer. 22. recognize that biological research may generate knowledge used to prevent,       diagnose, treat, control, and cure diseases of plants and animals.     Excretion  Content   Skills  excretion: the removal of cellular waste products from an organism [Wastes Produced by Metabolism] Respiration: carbon dioxide + water Dehydration Synthesis: water Certain metabolic processes: mineral salts Protein metabolism: nitrogenous wastes (urea) ** Nitrogenous wastes are produced from excess amino acids.. deamination: process of removing the amine group from an amino acid and converting it to another form ** Deamination occurs in the liver in humans. Excretory wastes may be either toxic or nontoxic. When toxic wastes are produced they are normally released, as in animals, or sealed off and stored, as in plants. Nontoxic waste materials may either be retained, released, or recycled in other metabolic activities. Major Human Excretory Organs (a.) Lungs -- excrete carbon dioxide and water -- presence of carbon dioxide may be demonstrated by blowing into a solution of limewater (turns milky) or a solution of bromothymol blue (turns yellow) (b.) Liver -- deaminates amino acids and converts ammonia to urea because ammonia is very poisonous to the tissues (c.) Skin -- has two main layers -- possesses sweat glands 2 Chief Sweat Gland Functions: 1. Aid in temperature regulation of the body. 2. Excretes urinelike wastes. (water, salt, and some urea) ** Perspiration is only incidentally excretory, its primary function is that of temperature regulation. Evaporation of the sweat (98% water and 2% salts and urea) occurs when heat is absorbed from skin cells.  This absorption of heat lowers body temperature. ** Temperature regulation is an example of homeostasis. (d.) Large Intestine: expels feces and excess salts (e.) Kidneys -- chief urinary system organ -- bean shaped, reddish-brown organs, in the pit of the back Kidney Cross-Sectional Picture 2 Major Functions: 1. They excrete most of the urea. 2. They control the concentration of most of the constituents of the body fluids. (the kidney filters out wastes and resorbs needed materials like water) (Other Key Excretory Structures) ureter: carries urine from the pelvis to the urinary bladder (one from each kidney) urinary bladder: short term storage area for the urine urethra: conducts urine from the bladder to the outside of the body The Human Urinary Tract         1.  define the term excretion. 2.  list several metabolic processes which produce excretory wastes and state      the specific waste(s) produced by each process. 3.  explain the chief excretory functions of the lungs, liver, skin, and large intestine. 4.  explain the role of the skin in the maintenance of temperature homeostasis in humans. 5.  explain how bromothymol blue may be used to demonstrate the excretion of      carbon dioxide by the lungs. 6.  describe the two major functions of the kidney in the body. 7.  given a diagram of the human urinary tract, identify the kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder,      and urethra. 8.  state the functions of the ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra. 9.  compare the nitrogenous waste removal process in land versus aquatic organisms.     Nervous and Hormonal Regulation  Content   Skills  The nervous and endocrine gland systems interact to control and coordinate the body's responses to changes in its environment, as well as growth, development, and reproduction. stimulus: a change in the external or internal environment which initiates an impulse impulse: an electro-chemical charge generated along a neuron receptors: structures specialized to detect certain stimuli response: a reaction to a stimulus effectors: organs which respond to a stimulus such as muscles or glands neuron = nerve cell (specially designed for the transmission of impulses) (Parts of a Neuron) cyton: cell body containing the nucleus dendrites: cytoplasmic fibers extending from the cyton -- these have the job of detecting the stimulus and generating impulses toward the cyton axon: the longest dendrite--carries nerve impulses away from the cyton toward the terminal          branches (endbrushes) ** All axons are covered with a fatty myelin sheath to provide electrical insulation. terminal branches: ends of axons that secrete neurotransmitters synapse: gap between adjacent neurons (terminal branches of one neuron and the dendrites of the next) or the gap between neuron and effector A Neuron Diagram     1 = dendrite 2 = cyton (cell body) 3 = axon (covered by myelin sheath) 4 = endbrushes neurotransmitter: chemical substance which starts the transmission of the nervous impulse   How do neurotransmitters work to transmit the nervous impulse in humans? 1. A nervous impulse travels down an axon to the tips of a terminal branch. 2. The terminal branch secretes neurotransmitter into the synapse gap. 3. The neurotransmitter travels to the next neuron and causes depolarization of that neuron -- thus a new nervous impulse is started in the next neuron. neuron: the basic cellular unit of the nervous system   Neurons may release chemicals to stimulate each other, or these chemicals may be released to stimulate a muscle or gland.  An example of a muscle being stimulated by a neuron appears after the reflex path pictured in number four in the diagram. Dynamic equilibrium results from detection and response to stimuli. stimulus -- a change in the environment detected by an organism response -- the organism's reaction to a stimulus Responses involve the action of effectors. effector -- any muscle or gland Organisms detect and respond to change in a variety of ways at both the cellular level and the organism level. More complex animals have a central nervous system which includes a brain and a nerve cord. Brain: a large mass of neurons located in the cranial cavity--contains three major divisions     cerebrum: center for voluntary activity interprets sensory impulses, initiates some motor activities, and responsible for memory, thinking and reasoning cerebellum: coordinates motor activities and aids in maintaining balance medulla: controls involuntary activities such as breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure and peristalsis (is part of the brain stem)   2. Spinal cord: lies within, and is protected by, the vertebrae of the spinal column -- is continuous with the brain -- coordinates activities between the brain and other body structures -- it is also a center for reflex actions [Peripheral Nervous System] --is located outside the central nervous system and consists of nerves extending throughout the body stroke: a disease resulting from a cerebral hemorrhage or a blood clot in a                cerebral blood vessel blocking blood flow to part of the brain -- may also result from a ruptured blood vessel ** This may result in brain damage leading to partial or total paralysis. [Types of Glands] 1. exocrine glands: duct glands                             ex. tear glands, sweat glands 2. endocrine glands: ductless glands 3. dual glands: function as both an exocrine and endocrine gland   1.     recognize that nervous control depends mostly upon the functioning of         neurons (nerve cells). 2.     define the term stimulus and list examples of this. 3.     define the following terms; impulse, receptors, response, and effectors. 4.     define the term neuron. 5.     given a neuron diagram, correctly identify the following structures; cyton,         dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, terminal branches, and synapse. 6.     state the function of the structures stated in objective # 5. 7.     explain what is meant by a neurotransmitter. 8.     describe the steps involved in the transmission of an impulse between neurons. 9.     recognize that responses involve the action of effectors. 10.   describe some ways that organisms detect and respond to changes at the         organism and cellular level. 11.   explain what is meant by a central nervous system. 12.   given a diagram of a human brain, correctly identify the cerebrum, cerebellum, and         medulla. 13.   state the chief function(s) of the brain regions listed in objective # 12. 14.   describe the chief functions of the spinal cord and explain how it is protected. 15.   explain what is meant by the peripheral nervous system. 16.   discuss some direct causes of stroke and some consequences of this. 17.   explain what is meant by an endocrine gland, exocrine gland, and a dual gland. 18.   explain how hormones are transported in the human body. 19.   explain what is meant by a target organ. 20.   recognize that hormones have specific shapes that fit with receptors on the surface         of the target organ or structure they are going to influence. 21.   explain what is meant by metamorphosis. 22.   recognize that hormones interact and exert control on metabolic activities such         as reproduction and development. 23.   discuss the role of the hormone ecdysone. 24.   recognize that the nervous and endocrine systems interact to control and coordinate         the body response to changes in the environment. 25.   recognize that homeostasis in organisms is constantly threatened. 26.   recognize that failure to regulate homeostasis can result in disease and/or death. 27.   describe the location and discuss the basic functions of the hypothalamus. 28.   explain where the pituitary gland is located. 29.   state the chief function of the following hormones produced by the pituitary gland;         growth hormone, FSH, TSH, and LH. 30.   describe the location of the thyroid gland and state the hormone it produces. 31.   state the function of thyroxin in the human body. 32.   describe the location of the parathyroid glands and explain how they control body         calcium levels. 33.   describe the function of the hormones adrenaline and cortisol produced by the         adrenal gland. 34.   describe the location of the adrenal gland in the human body. 35.   explain two ways insulin controls the level of blood sugar in humans. 36.   state the chief function of testosterone and state where it is produced. 37.   state the chief function of estrogen and state where it is produced. 38.   given a diagram, identify the location of the following structures; ovaries, testes,         pancreas, adrenal glands, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pituitary gland, and         hypothalamus. 39.   explain a major cause of goiter and a chief symptom of this disorder. 40.   state the chief cause of diabetes and list several major symptoms of this order. 41.   explain what is meant by negative feedback. 42.   describe the feedback loop between thyroid releasing factor, TSH, and thyroxin. 43.   describe the feedback loop between insulin, blood glucose levels, glucagon, and         glycogen. 44.   in a paragraph or two, compare the nervous and endocrine systems in reference to         the chemicals they produce, the duration of their responses, and the mechanism         by which they will turn on and react to a signal.

Movement  Content   Skills  Locomotion: change in position of an organism [Survival Value of Locomotion] 1. get food and shelter 2. escape from predators 3. move to regions better suited to survival 4. find mates 5. move away from toxic wastes (Functions of the skeleton) 1. Supporting framework for internal organs and tissues. 2. Anchorage sites for muscle action. 3. Protects the internal organs. 4. Provides leverage for body movement. 5. Blood cells are produced in the bone marrow. The bones also store minerals. cartilage: tough, fibrous, elastic connective tissue (Cartilage Functions) 1. Pliable support 2. Flexibility of joints 3. Cushioning of joints ** Cartilage makes up most of the embryo's skeleton. Most of this cartilage changes to bone by adulthood. ligaments: connect bones to bones (joints) tough and elastic tendons: tough inelastic fibrous cords which attach muscles to bones   A is a tendon (it connects the bone at D to the muscle at B) C is a ligament (connects bones) arthritis: joint inflammation tendonitis: tendon inflammation at bone junctures (a common condition in athletes) [Muscles] -- only body tissue able to contract -- create movement by flexing and extending joints -- body energy converters (many muscle cells contain many mitochondria) (3 Types of Muscles) 1. Smooth Muscle: (involuntary) "viscera" -- smooth in appearance, involuntary in action -- slowly contracting -- but contractions are long in duration -- lines blood vessels, alimentary canal, and body openings 2. Cardiac Muscle: (involuntary striated) -- resembles skeletal muscle with lined appearance, but is involuntary -- composes the hardest working muscle, the heart 3. Skeletal muscle: (voluntary, striated) -- voluntary in action -- contain many striped long fibers called striations -- found in association with skeletal bones -- the nervous system interacts with skeletal muscles to produce motion ** Violent muscle contractions require much oxygen. If oxygen is not available muscle fatigue will set in. "Muscle fatigue"-- results from oxygen debt -- lactic acid accumulates in skeletal muscles -- rest restores the oxygen balance Organisms have a great variety of locomotion structures.   1.     define the term locomotion. 2.     list five reasons locomotion enhances the ability of an organism to survive. 3.     list five functions of the human skeleton. 4.     describe cartilage and list three major functions it has. 5.     explain the difference between tendons and ligaments. 6.     describe the chief symptom of tendonitis and arthritis. 7.     describe the appearance, function, and some locations of skeletal muscle,         smooth (visceral) muscle, and cardiac muscle. 8.     describe how muscle fatigue occurs and the cause of this. 9.     recognize that organisms possess a great variety of locomotion structures.       DNA  Content   Skills  --Chromosomes found in the nucleus carry the hereditary material -- DNA DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) -- DNA controls cellular activity by influencing the production of enzymes. (Structure of DNA Molecules) DNA is a very long chain polymer made up of thousands of repeating units called nucleotides. Nucleotide Unit is composed of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base. The Nitrogenous Bases are; adenine (A) thymine (T)  guanine (G) cytosine (C) Watson and Crick (early 1950's) -- determined the structure of the DNA molecule ** Consists of two chains of nucleotide units in a twisted ladder-like structure. (resembles a spiral staircase) This spiral staircase is called an alpha helix. (37 degree turn) -- The sides of the ladder are made up of alternating deoxyribose sugar -- phosphate group units. -- The rungs of the ladder are made of 2 nitrogenous bases per rung linked together by a weak hydrogen bond. -- Only 2 combinations of base pairs can form the rungs of the DNA molecule. Adenine - Thymine (A-T) Guanine - Cytosine (C-G) ** This specific matching up of the nitrogenous bases is called complementary base pairing. ** DNA is able to replicate itself. [How does DNA form duplicates of itself during mitosis and meiosis?] 1. The double stranded DNA molecule unwinds and unzips between the weak hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous base pairs. 2. Free nucleotides present in the nucleus attach themselves by forming new hydrogen bonds with the exposed bases in the single chain. The only base which can reattach is the same type of base that was originally joined to it. A view of DNA replication (Usefulness of the Watson-Crick Model) 1. Explained how mitosis produces exact DNA copies for each daughter cell -- thus the genetic information passes on unchanged. 2. Explained how DNA acts as a code directing the making of enzymes and other proteins by a cell, thus directing cellular activities. (Directs the synthesis of RNA which makes proteins.) RNA (ribonucleic acid) ** RNA is also a polymer formed by a sequence of nucleotides. (How does RNA differ in structure from DNA?) 1. The RNA molecule is a SINGLE nucleotide strand, not a double strand as in DNA. 2. The sugar molecule in RNA is RIBOSE -- not deoxyribose as in DNA. 3. The base URACIL (U) takes the place of thymine. (T) [Synthesis of RNA] -- The various types of RNA are made from the template (pattern) of the DNA molecule. [Types of RNA] 1. mRNA (messenger RNA) made in nucleus 2. tRNA (transfer RNA) on the ribosomes 3. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) in the cytoplasm [How are proteins synthesized from a DNA template? (model)] 1. DNA serves as a template for the synthesis of mRNA from RNA nucleotides in the nucleus. transcription: transfer of the genetic message from DNA to mRNA 2. mRNA molecules carrying a specific code determined by the base sequence of the DNA template move from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. 3. Strands of mRNA carrying codons transcribed from DNA, move to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. codon: a triplet in a DNA molecule triplet: grouping of three nitrogenous bases in  DNA or RNA molecules (each codon will code for a specific amino acid) 4. mRNA strands become associated with rRNA on the ribosomes. (rRNA -- arranges date between mRNA and tRNA) 5. Different triplets of nitrogenous bases in tRNA molecules pick up specific amino acids in the cytoplasm and carry them to mRNA at the ribosomes. (tRNA -- I want aa.) 6. Amino acids are put into position on the ribosome with instructions from the triplet codes of tRNA and mRNA. 7. With the aid of enzymes and ATP (energy), the amino acids are bonded to form a polypeptide chain (protein) on the ribosome. An overview of the entire protein synthesis (transcription and translation) process. 1.    recognize that DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) controls cellular activity by influencing        the production of enzymes. 2.    describe the structure of a nucleotide. 3.    describe the structure of the DNA molecule. 4.    explain what is meant by complementary base pairing. 5.    explain how DNA is able to replicate itself during mitosis and meiosis. 6.    correctly define the term template. 7.    explain the usefulness of the Watson-Crick model of DNA. 8.    define the term polymer and explain why DNA and RNA are polymers. 9.    describe the structure of RNA and list three ways it differs in structure from DNA. 10.  explain how proteins are synthesized from a DNA template. 11.  define the terms transcription and translation. 12.  explain the role of mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA in the process of protein synthesis. 13.  correctly define the terms triplet, codon, and anticodon. 14.  in a paragraph or two, explain how DNA, RNA, and proteins are able to determine        the individuality of an organism. 15.  recognize that the work of a cell is carried out by the many different kinds of molecules        it assembles (especially its proteins). 16.  recognize that proteins are long, folded molecules composed of up to 20 different kinds        of amino acids which interact to produce specific protein shapes. 17.  recognize that enzymes and hormones are protein in nature. 18.  recognize that the specific shape of a protein usually determines its function. 19.  realize that offspring resemble their parents because they inherit similar genes that code        for the production of proteins that form similar structures and perform similar functions. 20.  explain in a paragraph how cell functions are regulated. 21.  explain why the body cells of an organism can be very different from each other, even        though they have the same genetic makeup. 22.  explain what is meant by cloning and list some uses of this. 23.  describe the process of genetic engineering and list five uses for this procedure. 24.  explain what restriction enzymes are and how they are used. 25.  recognize that inserting, deleting, or altering DNA segments can alter genes and that        this alteration may be passed on to every cell that develops from the altered cell. 26.  explain what the genetic mapping is. 27.  explain what the human genome project is and some potential advantages and        disadvantages of this work.   1.    recognize that DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) controls cellular activity by influencing        the production of enzymes. 2.    describe the structure of a nucleotide. 3.    describe the structure of the DNA molecule. 4.    explain what is meant by complementary base pairing. 5.    explain how DNA is able to replicate itself during mitosis and meiosis. 6.    correctly define the term template. 7.    explain the usefulness of the Watson-Crick model of DNA. 8.    define the term polymer and explain why DNA and RNA are polymers. 9.    describe the structure of RNA and list three ways it differs in structure from DNA. 10.  explain how proteins are synthesized from a DNA template. 11.  define the terms transcription and translation. 12.  explain the role of mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA in the process of protein synthesis. 13.  correctly define the terms triplet, codon, and anticodon. 14.  in a paragraph or two, explain how DNA, RNA, and proteins are able to determine the individuality of an organism. 15.  recognize that the work of a cell is carried out by the many different kinds of molecules        it assembles (especially its proteins). 16.  recognize that proteins are long, folded molecules composed of up to 20 different kinds        of amino acids which interact to produce specific protein shapes. 17.  recognize that enzymes and hormones are protein in nature. 18.  recognize that the specific shape of a protein usually determines its function. 19.  realize that offspring resemble their parents because they inherit similar genes that code        for the production of proteins that form similar structures and perform similar functions. 20.  explain in a paragraph how cell functions are regulated. 21.  explain why the body cells of an organism can be very different from each other, even        though they have the same genetic makeup. 22.  explain what is meant by cloning and list some uses of this. 23.  describe the process of genetic engineering and list five uses for this procedure. 24.  explain what restriction enzymes are and how they are used. 25.  recognize that inserting, deleting, or altering DNA segments can alter genes and that        this alteration may be passed on to every cell that develops from the altered cell. 26.  explain what the genetic mapping is. 27.  explain what the human genome project is and some potential advantages and        disadvantages of this work.

DNA & Protein Synthesis  Content   Skills  --Chromosomes found in the nucleus carry the hereditary material-DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) -- DNA controls cellular activity by influencing the production of enzymes. (Structure of DNA Molecules) DNA is a very long chain polymer made up of thousands of repeating units called nucleotides. Nucleotide Unit is composed of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base. The Nitrogenous Bases are; adenine (A) thymine (T) guanine (G) cytosine (C) Watson and Crick (early 1950's) -- determined the structure of the DNA molecule ** Consists of two chains of nucleotide units in a twisted ladder-like structure. (resembles a spiral staircase) This spiral staircase is called an alpha helix. (37 degree turn) -- The sides of the ladder are made up of alternating deoxyribose sugar -- phosphate group units. -- The rungs of the ladder are made of 2 nitrogenous bases per rung linked together by a weak hydrogen bond. -- Only 2 combinations of base pairs can form the rungs of the DNA molecule. Adenine - Thymine (A-T) Guanine - Cytosine (C-G) called complementary base pairing. ** DNA is able to replicate itself. 1. The double stranded DNA molecule unwinds and unzips between the weak hydrogen bonds. 2. Free nucleotides present in the nucleus attach themselves by forming new hydrogen bonds with the exposed bases in the single chain. Watson and Crick discovered the structure of DNA Protein synthesis is divided into transcription and translation transcription is making mRNA from DNA strand translation is when tRNA brings in the correct amino acid when the ribosome reads the mRNA strand   8.    define the term polymer and explain why DNA and RNA are polymers. 9.    describe the structure of RNA and list three ways it differs in structure from DNA. 11.  define the terms transcription and translation. 12.  explain the role of mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA in the process of protein synthesis. 14.  in a paragraph or two, explain how DNA, RNA, and proteins are able to determine the individuality of an organism. 16.  recognize that proteins are long, folded molecules composed of up to 20 different kinds        of amino acids which interact to produce specific protein shapes. 25.  recognize that inserting, deleting, or altering DNA segments can alter genes and that        this alteration may be passed on to every cell that develops from the altered cell.